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The Governance of MNEs
Yuan Jing
[中文概要]跨国公司,是国际直接投资的主要方式之一。跨国公司通常由投资国的母公司和东道国的子公司构成。尽管母公司和子公司属于相互独立的法人,但在经济上它们又相互联系,母公司通常管理和控制着子公司。为了推行全球战略,母公司经常把子公司作为其商业政策的工具,甚至不惜牺牲子公司的利益来追求跨国公司利益的最大化。根据法人人格制度,即使子公司由于母公司的指示或行为而遭受了损失,母公司也不负任何责任。因此,法人人格制度不仅给子公司的少数股东和债权人带来损失,也影响东道国的社会利益。另外,母公司和子公司间进行定价转移,逃避税务,也是跨国公司存在的法律问题之一。对于上述滥用法人人格制度,规避法律和税收,损害债权人和东道国利益的行为,应该进行有效的监督和管制,这是国际社会,特别是包括中国在内的东道国的共同心愿。
Introduction
Multinational Enterprise (MNE), as a main way of direct investment,
plays an important role in global economy. MNE is composed of parent
company established in home country and subsidiaries in host countries.
Although parent company and subsidiaries are independent legal entities,
it is the economical connection that bonds them together, with the
prerequisite that parent company exercises control over the activities
of subsidiaries. In pursing global business strategy and the interests
of the MNE as a whole, parent company establishes subsidiaries in other
countries to realize its business strategy and maximize its own
interests at the expense of the subsidiaries. As independent legal
persons, even subsidiaries induce debts due to parent companies’
indications and conducts, they have to be responsible for their own
debts. Thus, not only minority shareholders and creditors suffer losses,
social interests of host countries, in some cases, would be impaired.
Nowadays, the problem that whether parent company should be held
responsible for her subsidiaries’ debt has received worldwide concern.
What is more, establishing subsidiaries in host countries are a good way
to evade tax by transfer pricing, which would lead to the revenue loss
of host countries. Nowadays, it is the common sense of all countries,
especially developing countries, that there should be effective rules to
govern MNEs for their evasion of laws to protect the minority
shareholders, creditors, and what is the most important, the social
interests of host countries.
This paper will be written in the context of China. Chapter 1 will be a
general introduction of MNE and its characteristics. Based on the
characteristics of MNE, Chapter 2 will focus on the responsibility
assumed by parent company and subsidiaries and then give an answer
whether parent company should be held liable for the debts of
subsidiaries in certain cases. Chapter 3 will discuss the evasion of law
of MNEs. In details, it will focus on tax evasion by transfer pricing in
associated entities, such as parent company and its subsidiaries, by
abusing preferential taxation policy of host countries. Then it will
focus on the adjustment method and policy by Chinese government.
Chapter 1 General Introduction of Multinational Enterprises
Before analyzing the responsibility of MSE, what will be discussed below
is the definition and characteristics of MNE.
1.1
Definition
What is Multinational Enterprises?
Multinational
Enterprises is also called Transnational Corporations or Multinational
Corporations. Until recently, there is not a uniform definition of MNEs.
According to The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises,
Multinational Enterprises is comprised of ‘companies or
other entities whose ownership is private, state or mixed, established
in different countries and so linked that one or more of them may be
able to exercise a significant influence over the activities of others
and, in particular, to share knowledge and resources with the others”.
Still, United
Nations Center on Transnational Corporation (UNCTC) defines it as “it
is composed of the entities set up in two or more than two countries, no
matter what the form of law and degree of latitude of the entities are;
the operations of a corporation are made through one or more decision
centers according to a certain decision-making system; the entities may
have a consistent policy and collective strategy; because of the
ownership or other factors, one or more entities can have an important
impact on the conduct of other entities, especially in the sharing of
knowledge, resources and liabilities.”
Most Chinese
scholar agree with the definition in Code of Conduct of Multinationals,
which is defined that: “Multinational enterprises include
enterprises, whether they are of public, mixed or private ownership,
which own or control production, distribution, services or other
facilities outside the country in which they are based”.Professor Jinsong Yu holds that:
“a transnational corporation, as an economic organization, is the same
with general business corporations with corporate personality in legal
character; but it has brought some special legal issues owing to its
inherent distinctive features. The entities within a transnational
corporation are independent, but they constitute an aggregate under the
control of the parent company. In respect that it has a common
commercial purpose, a central control and interior integration, a
transnational corporation has the features of a corporation. It is an
economic entity, but not a legal one”
1.2 Legal elements
Despite some difference among all the definitions, they share some
characteristics in common:
1.2.1
Multinational
A MNE is composed of different independent legal entities dispersed in
different countries. And these legal entities are established as either
independent legal persons according to the law of host countries or
other kinds of legal subjects like branches and associates.
Factually, parent companies to some extent control or have an
important impact on legal entities through ownership or other
contractual relationship in host countries .
1.2.2 Close relationship among
different entities
A MNE is
neither the subject of international law nor of domestic law. Instead,
it is an aggregate of parent company and subsidiaries, branches or
associates under different legal systems. The close
relationship like ownership or other contractual relationship makes it
easier to share information, techniques and resources or assume
responsibility.
The central controlling makes MSE not a legal entity but an economic
entity.
1.2.3 Global business strategy and central management
The business strategy of a MNE, not based on respective subsidiaries in
certain districts but on the MNE as a whole, is to pursue the
maximization of MNEs’ interest to the largest extent and in the long
run. The global strategy is made by the parent company which has
high-centralized administration over all respective legal entities.
Chapter 2 Responsibilities
between Parent Companies and Local Entities
Limited liability, as refuge of shareholders, especially shareholders in
parent company, sometimes would be a danger to social interests of the
host countries when parent company abuses her controlling rights and
management advantages.
2.1 Legal grounds
When it comes to the question whether parent company should assume
responsibility for her subsidiaries, there are three mainly opinions:
2.1.1 Strict limited liability
According
to this principle, parent company and subsidiaries are different legal
entities established under different legal systems, and also,
shareholders of a corporation are not personally liable
for debts incurred or torts committed by the firm.
So, one legal entity’s debt cannot be
transferred to other legal entities. That is to say, parent company
should not be held liable for the act of her subsidiaries.
2.1.2 Enterprise liability
According to this analysis, a MNE should be regarded as a uniform
business entity. The entire corporate group should be held liable for
the any torts committed by its respective legal entities.
2.1.3 Piercing the corporate veil
This principle
admits that parent company and her subsidiaries are different legal
entity, still,
when the conception of corporate entity is employed
to defraud creditors, to evade an existing obligation, to circumvent a
statute, to achieve or perpetuate monopoly, or to protect knavery or
crime, the courts will draw aside the web of entity, will regard the
corporate company an association of live, up-and-doing, men and women
shareholders, and will do justice between real persons.
All these three
principle have both advantages and disadvantages. A prevailing opinion
in China nowadays is
“we should retain limited liability as a basic principle and piercing
the corporate veil as an exception in some cases.”
2.2 The application of limited
liability on MNEs
The reasons for the application are: firstly, it can encourage foreign
investment that can offer a lot of employments as well as stimulate the
internal market, which is very important for the sustainable development
of China; secondly, limited liability is an effective way to disperse
the investment risks of foreign investor, thus it may encourage the
collaboration between foreign investors and host countries (China), as
well as protect the investors of host countries in the case of joint
venture corporations. The form of joint venture which necessitates the
technology transfer as a foundation is helpful for further development
of China; thirdly, although limited liability may be unfair to
creditors, weighing the advantages against disadvantages, it is still
very helpful for the economy of China. In order to endure the protection
of foreign investors, almost every state has adopted the standard of
national treatment, that is to say, foreign investors enjoy the same
rights as those enjoyed by investors of host countries. What is more,
some developing countries even grant foreign investor more favorable
treatment than that of nationals to encourage foreign investment.ent.
If host
countries provide limited liability for nationals and exercise joint
liability on foreign MNEs at the same time, it would constitute
discrimination between nationals and foreign investors, which not only
obey“national treatment principle articulated
in Article 2(2) of the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States”,
but also impede the foreign investment in host countries. Thus,
Professor Qiong Dai argues that:
limited
liability should be provided for China subsidiaries of foreign MNEs.
2.3
Piercing corporate veil in
certain conditions
If we partially emphasize that MNEs are independent legal persons which
have limited liability, sometimes, it may impair the creditor’s
interests as well as the social interests of the host countries. So
while affirming the subsidiaries as independent legal persons, it is
necessary to pierce corporate veil and hold the parent company liable
for the liability of her subsidiaries. Reasons are as follows:
First, the abuse of limited liability by MNEs, deviates form the
original social and economic purpose of corporation system. What is
more, the abuse of independent legal person and limited liability, such
as to evade obligation, to evade laws, to pursue monopoly, would
endanger the social interests of host countries and disturb the
international economic market.
Second,
corporate social responsibility is considered as a potential solution
for the achievement of sustainable development of developing countries.
“The premise of the corporate social responsibility
movement is that corporations, because they are the dominant institution
of the planet, must squarely face and address the social and
environmental problems that afflict humankind”
It is more and more realized that corporate social
responsibility may
“provide human rights, labor, and environmental protections to the
communities in which they live and to the people they employed.”
Thus, besides maximizing shareholder’s interests as primacy, MNEs shall
assume responding social responsibility in such cases: subsidiaries’
acts result in polluted air and water; unhealthy working condition that
impair health of employees, pursuing of parent company’s interest at the
expense of subsidiaries’ which impair social interest of host countries.
In such cases, subsidiaries usually are indebted and can not undertake
all the responsibilities. If limited liability is applied, parent
company may be shielded from the responsibility that she is supposed to
assume.
Third, it is unfair to the creditors of subsidiaries when parent company
control her subsidiaries in host countries where subsidiaries act on
behalf of parent company which can be considered as agency relationship.
In such cases, creditors usually have sufficient reasons to believe that
parent company and subsidiaries are uniform legal entity. If
subsidiaries become indebted due to parent company’s act or order, based
on limited liability principle, the liability of parent company is only
limited to her shares in subsidiaries. This is contrary to social
equality and social justice and would impair creditors’ interests and
transaction safety.ety.
Fourth, the application of piercing corporate veil would curb MNEs from
pursuing illegal interests by means of abusing independent legal person
system. The denying of subsidiaries as independent legal persons in some
cases accords with some principle in civil law such as honesty and
credit, public justice, forbidding the abuse of rights, and would to the
large extent supplement the traditional corporate legal person system.
According to Company Law of People’s Republic of China, limited
liability shall be strictly complied with. When it comes to regulations
on parent company and subsidiaries, only Article 13 has concerned rules:
A company may establish subsidiaries, which shall possess the status of
enterprise legal persons, and shall independently bear civil liabilities
according to law.law.
So if subsidiaries of foreign MNEs can not assume all the liabilities,
which will impair the interests of China, Chinese Courts are not able to
hold parent company liable; and also, there is no such case law in
China. It is promising that there will be a revision on present Company
Law regarding parent company’s liability in the future.
Chapter 3 Governance of
MNEs’ Evasion of Law
Theoretically, transactions among associated enterprises, which may lead
to the shifting of debt or credit between parent companies and
subsidiaries, are autonomous enterprise conducts which are unavoidable.
Transfer pricing is a business strategy which should not be intervened
by authorities for the reasons that it may reduce the transaction costs,
improve the financial situation of the whole MNEs, etc. Thus, associated
transactions have some positive effects. But if the purpose of
associated transactions is to avoid the incidence of obligations or
liabilities imposed by the law, which reduce the revenue of host
countries, impair social interests or the third parties, they may be
considered to be illegal.
MNE is a good way of evasion of laws. It is the relationship between
parent and subsidiaries, branches that makes evasion of law possible and
convenient. Nowadays, there are not uniform rules regulating MNEs’
evasion of laws, yet, the rules on evasion of law in most cases is
concerned with concrete problems, such as price transferring.
3.1 Transfer Pricing
Transfer
pricing is the setting of prices in transactions that are not at ‘arm’s
length’—for example, when one company sells goods to another company,
but both companies have common ownership. There are several ways to
determine the transfer price, including cost methods, market price
methods, negotiation or even simply using an arbitrary figure. A goal of
transfer pricing may be to maximize after-tax revenue by setting
transfer prices that reduce the total tax paid.
So, MNEs serve as a good way to distribute tax
liability of her affiliates in different countries and determine the
whole tax burden of the MNEs. Although sometimes, price transferring
serves for internal managerial purpose, it may indirectly
affect the
tax liability and possible penalty for the multinational as a whole.
For China, a very important countries for MNEs’ direct investment,
transfer pricing do a great harm to national economy, it can be
described as following:
Firstly, it minimizes the tax income of China. Joint venture is good
example here. transferring the joint venture’s profits to parent company
by pricing transfer, parent company gains the benefits at the expense
that the Chinese shareholders cannot receive the benefits or dividend
they are supposed to receive; China as the host countries cannot gain
the interests by way of increasing tax income and relieving unemployment
in case of bankruptcy; Chinese labor cannot improve their welfare, etc.
Secondly, transfer pricing may result in a faked phenomenon that most
foreign enterprises or joint ventures in China is indebted which will
ruin China’s international reputation as well as discourage foreign
investment in China.
The OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines and the rules of the US are
good models for national authorities to govern transfer pricing.
According to Article 482 of Internal Revenue Code of the US:
“In any case of two or more organizations, trades, or businesses owned
or controlled directly or indirectly by the same interests, the
Secretary may distribute, apportion, or allocate gross income,
deductions, credits, or allowances between or among such organizations,
trades, or businesses, if he determines that such distribution,
apportionment, or allocation is necessary in order to prevent evasion of
taxes or clearly to reflect the income of any of such organizations,
trades, or businesses.”
Also, According to Article 9
of Articles of the Model Convention with Respect to Taxes on Income and
on Capital, that is, that related
companies should carry out their transactions between themselves on the
same basis as would have applied had they been dealing at arm’s-length.
Otherwise, the tax authority can choose the appropriate TPM which is
defined by the law to price at arm’s length, adjust the amount of income
and levy accordingly.
So, despite the autonomy by the MENs to set transfer pricing,
“the
tax authority can make an adjustment rather than punishment unless the
transfer pricing is quite preposterous and the substantial result
equates that of deliberate tax evade.”
In China, the first and most important legislation concerned with
pricing transfer is Law of the People's Republic of China on the
Foreign-funded and Foreign Enterprise Income Tax (FEIT Law). According
to Article 13, The payment or receipt of charges or fees in business
transactions between an enterprise with foreign investment or an
establishment or a place set up in China by a foreign enterprise to
engage in production or business operations, and its associated
enterprises, shall be made in the same manner as the payment or receipt
of charges or fees in business transactions between independent
enterprises. Where the payment or receipt of charges or fees is not made
in the same manner as in business transactions between independent
enterprises and results in a reduction of the taxable income, the tax
authorities shall have the right to make reasonable adjustment.
This
article provides the main principle as to making transaction price among
associated enterprises and also provides a tax authority controlling the
transfer pricing abuse.
A conclusion could be drawn from this article is that the existence of
associated enterprises is |